In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, growing numbers of tourists and scholars from Europe and America, fascinated by new discoveries, visited the Near East and Egypt - attracted by the riches and mysteries of the Land of the Bible. Almost all such visitors, no matter how esoteric or academic their pursuits, had to deal with the local authorities and the native workforce for their archaeological excavations. The vast majority of these visitors had to rely on interpreters, dragomans, translators and local guides. This study, based on published and unpublished travel memoirs, guidebooks, personal papers and archaeological reports of the British and American archaeologists, deals with the socio-political status and multi-faceted role of interpreters at the time. Those bi- or multi-lingual individuals frequently took on (or were forced to take on) much more than just interpreting. They often played the role of go-betweens, servants, bodyguards, pimps, diplomats, spies, messengers, managers and overseers, and had to mediate, scheme and often improvise, whether in an official or unofficial capacity. For the most part denied due credit and recognition, these interpreters are finally here given a new voice. An engrossing story emerges of how through their many and varied actions and roles, they had a crucial part to play in the introduction to Britain and America of these mysterious past cultures and civilizations.

Art and Its Histories, Volume I: Caves to Cathedrals Revisited tells a succinct and absorbing story about the varied, complex roles that images and objects have played in cultures from Prehistory to the Middle Ages. Each chapter in the textbook provides historical, social, religious, and cultural context for the images and objects analyzed, as well as recent research about materiality, gender, and social class to demonstrate connections between art history and contemporary visual culture. In addition to an engaging introduction and conclusion that emphasize connectivity across cultures, thirteen chapters, written by subject experts, explore over 500 individual images and objects within their respective historical contexts. Each chapter is accompanied by suggested activities and assignments that enrich the student reading and learning experience. Art and Its Histories, Volume I demonstrates that across historical periods cultures do not exist in isolation; instead they are in constant dialogue with each other, promoting cross-cultural pictorial languages and styles. It is the first textbook in a two-volume series designed to support courses and programs in art history. All of the contributors and editors are alumni of New York University's Institute of Fine Arts.